Alpers, Svetlana. The Art of Describing: Dutch Art in the Seventeenth Century. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1983. Print.
This is one of the books that Svetlana Alpers analyzed about Dutch painting, focusing most on the Vermeer’s. Alpers states an argument that there are two kinds of art in the world; Italian Renaissance and Dutch Golden age. She mostly focuses on the Dutch painting, using the sources of Italian paintings for comparison. She claims that Renaissance art centers around representation of the human body whereas Dutch art is concerned with representing everything else in nature exactly and unselectively. She describes the connection between Dutch paintings and history, science and nature, and then explores each connection in the book chapter by chapter. She establishes a content for pictorial phenomena of the Dutch art in terms of 17th century theories of knowledge. The author draws a parallel line between Dutch art and culture and interprets the paintings with purely visual evidence, interplay of art, experimental science and knowledge. This interpretation is meant for us to better understand the Dutch paintings, especially those of Vermeer. She not only explores the Dutch culture but also painting process used in the paintings. She emphasizes the frequent usage of camera obscura by linking a connection with Dutch art and science. There is an examination of three aspects of how words are treated in the visual mode of Dutch culture; inscriptions on paintings, letter writes and readers, and captions in narrative works. She examines every bit of Dutch painting in details, trying not to miss any message by painters if there is any. Also, lots of references of Golden Age or Renaissance painters were used to describe the methods or characteristics of such paintings. Alpers helps us to gain access to the paintings through a consideration of their place, role and presence in the culture. [Jung Ha Lee]
Alpers, Svetlana. “The Mapping Impulse in Dutch Art,” Art and Geography. Ed. David Woodward. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Svetlana Alpers discusses the parallel practice of landscape art and cartography and the interest Dutch artists had in joining the two. Alpers defines not the differences between the art of landscape painting and science of cartography, instead describing the overlap and common bond between the two. Alpers uses Vermeer’s “Art of Painting” as an example of Dutch culture bridging the gap between the art and science of mapmaking. Alpers describes the Dutch as the first culture who created maps as artistic wall hangings, among other practical uses. Vermeer’s Art of Painting contains his signature within the wall hung map, along with the signature on the painting itself. Alpers believes this signature signifies Vermeer’s belief in the marriage of art and science in cartography. Alpers goes on to describe the spread of geographical illustration in the 16th century into a common pastime. Topographic, landscape, and surveying means of mapmaking were all common. The Dutch were especially adept at portraying topography and the landscape, and they own the origin of the painting term in the dutch word “landschap”. Alpers indicates the importance of skillful artistic rendition in Dutch site planning maps, as topography and water egress were important, but the Dutch lacked the proper surveying equipment to give scale to their maps.
Svetlana Alpers is an American art historian, artist, and critic, who served as professor of art history at Berkeley. She holds claim as one of the most influential art historians in America since the 1960’s. Alpers has performed consulting work for National Public Radio and the National endowment for the Humanities. Alpers received her Ph.D from Harvard. [Richard Burroughs]
"An Exhibition of Dutch Paintings." Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. 75.438 (1939): 124-125 127. Print.
The point of this magazine article was to determine the influence and elaborate on the origins for a few selected Dutch paintings. The exhibition in question was opened on July 8th, 1939 in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. Differing from the usual art exhibition that organized the work of one or more artists using the same style, this exhibition was comprised of various forms of art such as paintings, etchings, sculptures, and stained glass that related the Biblical story as told by artists from the Dutch Golden Age time period. Work from a sixteenth century painter, Dirck Barentsz, portrayed the scenes of the Life of the Virgin Mary in the form of a triptych. The author’s description of this work is informative, but it would be easier to comprehend for the reader if scenes from this work were included with the article.
An informative bit, such as the placement of Biblical subjects in the works of notable painters of the time like Jan de Bray, Frans Hals, and Thomas de Keyser is mentioned. The Dutch Golden Age was a period of tolerance for religion when compared to neighboring European states. This tolerance was more geared toward Protestants of the time. Disdain for Catholicism at the time stemmed from unrest between the Netherlands and predominantly Catholic Spain. This article also helps the reader understand the religious views that the Dutch Protestant might have about Catholics in the country.
Regardless of the antipathy toward Catholicism, the generous tolerance toward other religions of the time allowed one to practice Catholicism in private or even speak out against religion altogether publicly. This article mentions how Jan Steen’s great religious sentiment speaks through underlying meaning in seven of his paintings. Overall, this article is helpful in discussing the culture of fifteenth to seventeenth century Dutch life. (John Taylor)
Cibelli, Deborah H. “’Girl with a Pearl Earring‘: Painting, Reality, Fiction." The Journal of Popular Culture 37.4 (2004): 583-592. Print
The author stated that, for Chevalier, the realism of Vermeer's style was not completely unmediated. Chevalier accepts the theory that Vermeer produced his paintings using the camera obscura. In the aspect of portraying the scene, she referred to Vermeer's use of the camera obscura to underscore the accuracy of the figures in his paintings. The author quoted theorem by other proficient he agreed with that Vermeer imitated halation effects by using pointellés, or dots of impasto, as an abstract element to define solid nonmetallic objects, and not just for highlights. For the most part, Chevalier agreed with the thesis and stylistic assessment, but she missed some points of the technique. The author pointed out an interesting fact that Chevalier provided evidence for Vermeer’s use of the camera obscura by proof his accessibility to lens. Van Leeuwebhoek, who also triggered other important plots was the interesting figure Chevalier used.
The author also stated that in assessing the naturalistic outer forms, the viewer is to analyze the figures in Vermeer's paintings for signs of their interior thoughts so that their emotions or passions can be contrasted with ideals of the time period. The camera obscura is paradigmatic of her technique of describing the social context and the personality and moral dimension of the characters, which is supported by an example of the milk maid in the book, which put emphasis on the human figure. The author of the article disagreed with that. Despite Chevalier's keen description of the tableau, certain details and furnishings were not mentioned. There is no reference to the Cupid figures depicted in the tiles along the lower section of the wall, or the foot-warmer to the lower right of the figure, which all represented main figure’s traits.
Another painting method, false color, was also mentioned by the author. Chevalier had Griet discuss Vermeer's method for rendering form. Those puzzling color contributed to the picture in the end. Thus, Chevalier argued that the “false colors” were deliberately chosen to further the artist's aims. The author seemed to agree with that, but no further discussion about the novel was given on this topic. [Minshuo Li]
Jackery, Hughes. "Vermeer's Palette." The National Gallery, London: Western European Painting 1250–1900. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 July 2013
Without a doubt, colors used in a painting can determine the faith of an artifact. “The range and depth of colours in Vermeer’s paintings were achieved by using a few core pigments. Discover which colours Vermeer used and how he combined these in surprising new ways.” From the beginning, the article starts off by describing Vermeer’s expertise in coloristic effects. Bright colors glimmering in every painting certainly captured the eyes of any audience. Author then, mentions shocking truth about Johannes Vermeer. No different from the most of 17th Century painters, Vermeer had surprisingly limited palette of colors. However, Vermeer searched for wide range of sources for pigments, which ultimately filled his palette with beautiful set of newborn colors. Author lists some of the unique ones that Vermeer used often in his paintings starting with lapis lazuli, which is also known as ultramarine. As he describes, lapis lazuli was extremely expensive colors during the era. Therefore, painters used a sparing amount whereas Vermeer utilized vast amount of this pigment by mixing it into a range of new colors. Author points out the frequent appearance of ultramarine in many of Vermeer’s painting, but in different forms. Because he used lapis lazuli to mix it with other colors, he successfully created wide range of bluish green, bluish yellow and bluish grey colors. Subtle but clearly noticeable difference can be found in Vermeer’s palette of blue pigments. Author then continues on by describing other colors that Vermeer skillfully used such as green-earth, lead-tin yellow, yellow lake, vermilion, red lake and lead white. Throughout the color description, author informs the reader of the functionality of each pigment. From a shadow lying under a woman’s face to an iris of eye, Vermeer’s ability to capture even smallest details and use realistic colors had a synergy effect that no other artists during the era can mimic as the author states to the readers in very convincing tone. By then, the overall message from the article becomes really clear to any audience: Vermeer’s paintings would not be full of details and realism without his ingenious mind to venture into creation of new colors.
[Jung Hun Kim]
Janson, Jonathan. "Essential Vermeer." Essential Vermeer. N.p., 15 Oct. 2001. Web. 22 July 2013.
The main intention of this source is to thoroughly describe the setting in which Vermeer lived and created his artwork. Maps and cultural references are used to paint the picture of what it was like to live and be an artist in the 17th century Dutch culture. The aspect of religion is touched on as the city of Delft was widely divided between Protestants and Catholics. Janson speaks of how Vermeer was a Catholic living in a primarily Protestant culture and yet how his artwork could still strive.
“Essential Vermeer” was a critical source used for laying out the cultural context for further analysis of “Girl with a Pearl Earring”. Janson wants the reader to understand the distinct geographical and cultural aspects of Delft that contributed to Vermeer’s artwork.
Using the internet medium, Janson created this resource in 2001. “Essential Vermeer” is the primary resource for anything to do with Vermeer and is the most comprehensive website dedicated to a single artist. Hundreds of web pages, thousands of images, and numerous interviews with famous art historians. Janson is considered the most knowledgeable and well-known Vermeer historian. In fact, many 17th century historians seek Janson’s expansive knowledge of 17th century Dutch culture. (Devin Roach)
Jongh, E. “Pearls of Virtue and Pearls of Vice.” Stichting voor Nederlandse Kunsthistorische Publicaties. 69-97. 21 Web. July 2013.
The author of “Pearls of Virtue and Pearls of Vice” researches the symbolic meaning of pearls in Dutch painting (Vermeer’s Allegory of Faith) and in 17th century literature.
The writer also looks into the theory of iconological interpretation which is applicable to many different kinds of paintings. In I9I4 Adriaan Barnouw, a professor of Dutch studies, published an article presenting that the theme of Vermeer’s allegorical composition was faith, unambiguously the Catholic faith, which also happened to be that belonging to the artist. Vermeer’s allegorical painting depicts many symbolic objects, but among them explicitly includes a piece of gold gilt leather, an ebony crucifix on a table, a glass sphere hanging by a blue ribbon from the ceiling and finally a pearl necklace worn by a woman. The author writes that as a whole, the painting and everything in it represents the Christianity. For many years before, iconographers had drawn a connection between gold and faith, and the cross found on the table is an unmistakable longstanding aspect of the Christian faith. In many paintings during the 17th century, the sphere represented the artist of the painting in his studio. In addition, in two Vanitas still lifes, the sphere serves as a reminder of death, as the painter and his work will also be overcome by death in the end. As for the sphere in Vemeer’s work, it seems to reference an emblem book by the Jesuit Willem Hesius in 1636 called “Emblemata sacra de fide, spe, charita”, where a boy is depicted sitting beside a cross and lifting a sphere in which the cross and the sun are reflected. A little sphere can reflect the entire universe, as the human mind, despite its limitation, is able to contain the limitlessness of belief in God. There was nothing uncommon in the I7th-century about using reflecting or non-reflecting spheres to symbolize heaven as well. As for the pearls, there are numerous instances of pearls and faith being related to each other in the early Christian era, as it was already being used as a symbol of Christ or of his incarnation. The pearl is frequently compared to Christ, his teachings, or the kingdom of heaven. (Katherine Pham)
Massey, Lyle. “Reflections On Temporality In NetherLandish Art.” Art History 35.5 (2012): 1050-1057. Historial Abstracts. 24 July 2013.
Lyle Massey compared the difference between 17th century Dutch visual art and the Italian visual arts. Italian artists construct very technical paintings. Also Italian artists paint a lasting image. Dutch art on the other hand concentrate more on the visual rather than the spatial, and temporality rather than space. Dutch paintings focus on visual cues such as light and shadows, and how vision is an effect of the constant interaction among our eyes, natural light, and objects. With camera obscura Dutch painter tries to capture real time image that engages the perception, which resulted in a more modern looking than that of the Italian counterpart. Dutch art can be associated with the dullness of material things, but we find that Dutch artist can make these dullness things beautiful. For this reason Dutch painting often lacks deeper meaning and becomes boring at first glance. The Author point out that boredom is the key to understanding Dutch art.
The author also went into detail about Dutch’s still life paintings, specifically the skull. Skulls in Dutch visual culture are often a common visual representation of death. Instead the author suggested that the meaning of the skull is always changing. The skull and the skeleton were used as a bridge between the living and the dead. The still life brings to attention the meaning of the relativity of time. By comparing human time to geological time, human time becomes irreverent when comparing to the rock cycles and the decomposition of bones. This article is very informative on the visual art of the Dutch golden age compared to the Italian visual arts. The article goes into detail about the Dutch visual arts especially still lives, references art historians and many experts in the field. Massey's article is a very useful source of Dutch 17th century visual culture. [Sataporn Worasilpchai]
Montias, John Michael. "The Guild of St. Luke in 17th-Century Delft and the Economic Status of Artists and Artisans." Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art 9.2 (1977): 93–105. Print. 17 July 2013.
The essay opens with the proposal for creation of the Guild of St. Luke in the town of Leiden in 1609. Unfortunately for the artists, the town officials denied their request to start a guild. The trade with foreign cities threatened the interests of Dutch painters. The Delft authorities issued statutes for the Guild of St. Luke to further stifle foreign works of art to be traded in Delft. Records of the members in the guild were reviewed by profession, adding up to 92 in 1613 compared to 39 in 1588. These individuals made up a little less than one percent of the 22,760 population of Delft. The essay raises four questions to go into further detail: Does the master list account for all guild members from 1613 to 1714, which artists were in the guild, for did the economic status compare between member and non-member, and the economic status within the guild between trades. Since the guild controlled the selling of works of art, most art dealers were a part of the guild. All painters, sculptors, glass makers, etc. had to be a part of the guild if they wanted to open up shop and sell any of their own works. Unregistered painters were usually sons of guild members therefore just painted and worked for them. For an apprentice to become a member of the guild, an admittance fee must be paid along with a masterpiece submitted for approval. Some trades such as potters had many more unregistered artisans than other trades due to the complex operation and more employed workers. The average price of a house of a guild member was significantly than the property value of any non guild member. The Delft Guild of St. Luke was one of few examples where the guild lasted for generations keeping its importance because of its large, distinguished membership and authority over artistic commerce.
[Kyle Quick]
Morel, Pauline. ""Look at me": The Camera Obscura and the Apprenticeship of the Gaze in Tracy Chevalier's Girl with a Pearl Earring." Mosaic: a journal for the interdisciplinary study of literature 44.2 (2011): 67-83. Web. 22 Jul. 2013.
Pauline Morel, the author of Mosaic, suggests that the importance of the camera obscura is to minimize the weak points of seeing subjectively. She supports this suggestion with detailed explanations and quotations from the book Girl with a Pearl Earring. Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the most famous Dutch scientist in the area of optics and was famous for his microscopic studies in the Golden Dutch Age. It has been suggested that he is the man portrayed in two of Vermeer’s paintings, The Astronomer and The Geographer. Based on this assumption, Chevalier portrayed him as Vermeer’s friend and patron. Leeuwenhoek also gave Vermeer the camera obscura in the book Girl with a Pearl Earring. The function of the camera obscura, with a camera lens and screen, can be compared to the eye and the subjective experience of seeing. Morel quoted Alper's argument that "the camera obscura is the 'equivalent of the eye' (30). Here, however, it enhances and technologizes the eye" (Morel 71). According to Morel’s argument, by seeing through eyes, the image we visually comprehend is biased by our thoughts as we veil “unwanted” objects and focus only on certain objects we want to perceive. Contrary to seeing with the naked eye, when seeing through the camera obscura, "the image is distanced, stilled, defamiliarized, captured" (Morel 73). The camera obscura, a “black box” in the book Girl with a Pearl Earring, becomes an important topic that leads to the first interaction of Vermeer and Griet in Vermeer’s studio. "Vermeer's "black box" enables the user to discover things that are obscured, kept secret, hidden from ordinary sight" (Morel 72).
[Eunsun Choi]
Parker, Charles H. Faith on the Margins: Catholics and Catholicism in the Dutch Golden Age. Harvard University Press, 2008.
The focus of this book is to study the collaboration between the laity and the secular clergy in the missionary organization known as the Holland Mission. This book also gives an academically researched context to the catholicism during the Dutch Golden Age. The Dutch Republic during this time outlawed Catholic worship and secularized all church property. The author's research time line overlaps with when Vermeer was alive and active. The range also covers before and slightly after the Dutch Golden Age as well giving the audience more contexts within itself. In the post-Reformation period, the Dutch citizens could choose among many various Christian denominations including Catholic and Calvinist. They could even choose not to be related to any of them if they so choose. However, it wasn't free-for-all to all religion. There were still outlawed denominations which could lead to devastating consequences. Though switching denomination was allowed, citizens still had to be careful where they tread. However, Dutch still had the most freedom with their religious choices within Europe. What we see often see here is the Protestants, Calvinists and Mennonites, railed against the religious liberty despite the "image" of the Dutch Golden Age of having a high tolerance against different religious beliefs. Mainly the toleration implied a condition of religious coexistence by the state to manage the public. In best case scenario, Catholic worships were held in private homes. Catholics forfeited eligibility to hold any public offices and lost all rights to display their religious allegiance in any public forum. Remaining faithful to Catholicism came at a high price. The Catholic communities developed a collective self-awareness which made them identify with the earlier sufferings of Christians. [Ky Lee]
Snow, Edward. A Study of Vermeer. Google Books. University of California Press, 1994. Web. 20 July 2013.
Edward Snow discusses the painting the “Girl with a Pearl Earring” in the first chapter of his book called “Head of a Young Girl”. He mentions her piercing yet compassionate eyes- how they sharpen the mood when one views the painting. He discusses the secret understanding, complicity and unrevealed story behind Vermeer’s art. Vermeer’s art is very real because the background and all the people make one feel as if he or she were present and part of the image. Vermeer always leaves one wondering who, what, where, and why and the unknown is what made him great. His paintings include a depicted moment in time and the use of camera obscura projects the image from the outside screen to the inside. Vermeer’s painting all have a magnificent attention to specific details. The author mentions how Vermeer’s style influenced the invention of modern cameras. Snow constantly refers back to different images of Vermeer’s and does not only refer to the specific painting process and technique, but also the gender politics and sexuality behind all the paintings he analyzes. He offers insight and understanding on how to inspire people to examine and interpret Vermeer’s art compared to modern artwork and other sixteenth century paintings. The book is mainly designed to facilitate the overall painting process as there are over eighty different illustrations that are analyzed and explained.
[Neuman, Addie]
Snow, Edward A., and Johannes Vermeer. A Study of Vermeer. Rev. and enl. ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994: 91-92. Print.
In Chevalier’s Girl with a Pearl Earring, one of the paintings that Griet describes to her parents one Sunday while at home depicts van Ruijven sitting with his back to the audience playing a lute, one woman with her hands on a harpischord, and another woman on van Ruijven’s other side. In reality, Chevalier is actually describing an authentic painting attributed to Johannes Vermeer known as The Concert. It is only this painting, plus two others (Couple standing at a Virginal and Artist in His Studio) chart early artistic concerns Vermeer had that were included in his later work through his depictions of interactions between the two sexes. Snow refers to Vermeer’s subject in this painting more directly as “women in the light of men’s attention” (91). The Concert is an interesting painting to art historians for its change of pace from earlier works; the subjects are moved to the back of the room, creating a mood of intimacy that Vermeer’s previous works lacked due to the nearness of his previous subjects in the foreground of those paintings, “situated in a space that seems more transcendental than spectatorial” (91). Though Snow observes more balance than tension in this piece, there still, quite clearly, exists “erotic motives” both sanctioned and suppressed by the painting. It is this subtle marriage of art and sexuality that Snow wishes to bring to the observer’s view in Vermeer’s work. Perhaps this is why van Ruijven’s character in Chevalier’s novel holds such overt sexual overtones; to compare and contrast with the dynamics in Vermeer’s actual paintings. Still, The Concert remains visually clear that it’s true focus is on the women in the painting despite the tension, balance, and interaction noted earlier, the man “is still a visitor in an interior realm that obviously favors female presence” (92). It is also worth noting that Chevalier could have decided to include this painting in her book since it represented such a transitional time for Vermeer’s paintings in real life according to Snow. [Lauren Morgan]
Steadman, Philip. Vermeer’s Camera: Uncovering the Truth Behind the Masterpieces. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Print.
While the fact that Vermeer has occasionally used certain optical devices to assist his drawing creation is widely accepted among art historians, the author of this book studied camera obscura mechanism, Vermeer’s painting techniques, and the 17th-century Dutch cultural context to determine to what degree Vermeer relied on the optical aid. The author revealed the novel and prestigious role of optical device in 17th century Netherland and also covered Vermeer’s relationship with his scientist friends who introduced camera obscura to him, evidence of usage from the reconstruction of spaces in Vermeer’s paintings, arguments against Vermeer’s use of the camera, and how camera has influenced on Vermeer’s painting style. The painting Girl with a Pearl Earring was also discussed in his book by citing a recent study of the painting using X-ray photography. The chapter analyzed X-ray result to determine Vermeer’s painting process, layer by layer. Other studies on Vermeer’s paintings using contemporary technologies are also discussed in this book.
This source is very useful in obtaining knowledge of the camera obscura itself as well as attributes of Vermeer’s painting style that reflected the influence of camera obscura. It does not limit the discussion to argue whether Vermeer has used the device but also to explore Vermeer’s obsessions with light, shadow and color as a reflection of his unique perspective which may from his prolonged observations of patterns of light falling on the camera obscura screen.
[Chenlu Han]
Timmers, J. J. M. A History of Dutch Life and Art. [London]: Nelson, 1959. Print.
As referenced by the glossary term, Roemer glass, the Dutch gained their inspiration for glass from their Roman predecessors. However, the Dutch perfected one look and perfected the look of the Roemer while the Romans had a multitude created a large range of containers. Examples of the wide variety are the glass containers, terra sigillata, and terra nigra. All of these vary in shape, colour, and material. Although, none of them hold the uniqueness of the Roemer, that is, none of the containers have a stem. Instead of stems, the Romans made handles for the containers to be easily held. In addition, the containers are consistant in the materials. The terra sigillata is made of strictly red clay, terra nigra is made of all darkened or black clay, and the glass was made of only the same type of sand. The Roemers were different because a fair number of them had green glass stems, but had a clear glass cup, which is caused by using two different types of sand. Only by looking back at the past, can the current viewers see how the Dutch gained their style from their ancestors. The Dutch used the Roman’s work as stepping stones, in other words, they learned glass turning and making relief patterns all in such a way that a large number of people could have access to such great tools so that their lives could be made easier.
[Matthew Segars]
Vries, A. B. De. Jan Vermeer Van Delft. London: B.T. Batsford, 1948. Print.
The book is comprised of seven chapters, which in my opinion is basically about two main ideas: who Vermeer was and what paintings he drew. The book relies heavily on legal documents found about Vermeer to piece together the story of his life. In the first half of the book, there are indications of Vermeer's economic struggle. Johannes Reyniersz Vermeer and Catharina Bolenes entered in the list of persons married in Delft between 1650 and 1656. Shortly after, he joined the Guild of St. Luke, which required him to pay an entrance fee. With the burden of both the marriage and the guild, it took Vermeer three years to pay off his entrance fee. Financial difficulties, like Vermeer's colleagues, obsessed him greatly, as many records suggest. He was either in possession of little capital or was deep in debt throughout his artistic career. In 1657, Vermeer borrowed 200 guilders. He received some legacy from his sister, Geertruyt. Before his death, Vermeer borrowed 1000 guilders. Upon death, the baker, Hendrick van Buyten, settled a debt of 617 guilders that Vermeer owed him with two pictures as payment. Vermeer's widow placed great value on the paintings and initially reserved the rights to keep the paintings. Ultimately, the immense debt was unmanageable and Catharina Vermeer-Bolnes had to refuse the inheritance. However, it should also be noted that he received handsome payments for his piece of artwork. Gerrit Dou was a world-famous artist at the time and he received about 300 guilders for a single figure painting, comparable to Vermeer's. Before 1700, a greater number of Vermeer's paintings could be found in individual collections. In 1696, an auction was held in Amsterdam where twenty-one of his paintings were sold and distributed.
[Alex Rhim]
This is one of the books that Svetlana Alpers analyzed about Dutch painting, focusing most on the Vermeer’s. Alpers states an argument that there are two kinds of art in the world; Italian Renaissance and Dutch Golden age. She mostly focuses on the Dutch painting, using the sources of Italian paintings for comparison. She claims that Renaissance art centers around representation of the human body whereas Dutch art is concerned with representing everything else in nature exactly and unselectively. She describes the connection between Dutch paintings and history, science and nature, and then explores each connection in the book chapter by chapter. She establishes a content for pictorial phenomena of the Dutch art in terms of 17th century theories of knowledge. The author draws a parallel line between Dutch art and culture and interprets the paintings with purely visual evidence, interplay of art, experimental science and knowledge. This interpretation is meant for us to better understand the Dutch paintings, especially those of Vermeer. She not only explores the Dutch culture but also painting process used in the paintings. She emphasizes the frequent usage of camera obscura by linking a connection with Dutch art and science. There is an examination of three aspects of how words are treated in the visual mode of Dutch culture; inscriptions on paintings, letter writes and readers, and captions in narrative works. She examines every bit of Dutch painting in details, trying not to miss any message by painters if there is any. Also, lots of references of Golden Age or Renaissance painters were used to describe the methods or characteristics of such paintings. Alpers helps us to gain access to the paintings through a consideration of their place, role and presence in the culture. [Jung Ha Lee]
Alpers, Svetlana. “The Mapping Impulse in Dutch Art,” Art and Geography. Ed. David Woodward. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Svetlana Alpers discusses the parallel practice of landscape art and cartography and the interest Dutch artists had in joining the two. Alpers defines not the differences between the art of landscape painting and science of cartography, instead describing the overlap and common bond between the two. Alpers uses Vermeer’s “Art of Painting” as an example of Dutch culture bridging the gap between the art and science of mapmaking. Alpers describes the Dutch as the first culture who created maps as artistic wall hangings, among other practical uses. Vermeer’s Art of Painting contains his signature within the wall hung map, along with the signature on the painting itself. Alpers believes this signature signifies Vermeer’s belief in the marriage of art and science in cartography. Alpers goes on to describe the spread of geographical illustration in the 16th century into a common pastime. Topographic, landscape, and surveying means of mapmaking were all common. The Dutch were especially adept at portraying topography and the landscape, and they own the origin of the painting term in the dutch word “landschap”. Alpers indicates the importance of skillful artistic rendition in Dutch site planning maps, as topography and water egress were important, but the Dutch lacked the proper surveying equipment to give scale to their maps.
Svetlana Alpers is an American art historian, artist, and critic, who served as professor of art history at Berkeley. She holds claim as one of the most influential art historians in America since the 1960’s. Alpers has performed consulting work for National Public Radio and the National endowment for the Humanities. Alpers received her Ph.D from Harvard. [Richard Burroughs]
"An Exhibition of Dutch Paintings." Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. 75.438 (1939): 124-125 127. Print.
The point of this magazine article was to determine the influence and elaborate on the origins for a few selected Dutch paintings. The exhibition in question was opened on July 8th, 1939 in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. Differing from the usual art exhibition that organized the work of one or more artists using the same style, this exhibition was comprised of various forms of art such as paintings, etchings, sculptures, and stained glass that related the Biblical story as told by artists from the Dutch Golden Age time period. Work from a sixteenth century painter, Dirck Barentsz, portrayed the scenes of the Life of the Virgin Mary in the form of a triptych. The author’s description of this work is informative, but it would be easier to comprehend for the reader if scenes from this work were included with the article.
An informative bit, such as the placement of Biblical subjects in the works of notable painters of the time like Jan de Bray, Frans Hals, and Thomas de Keyser is mentioned. The Dutch Golden Age was a period of tolerance for religion when compared to neighboring European states. This tolerance was more geared toward Protestants of the time. Disdain for Catholicism at the time stemmed from unrest between the Netherlands and predominantly Catholic Spain. This article also helps the reader understand the religious views that the Dutch Protestant might have about Catholics in the country.
Regardless of the antipathy toward Catholicism, the generous tolerance toward other religions of the time allowed one to practice Catholicism in private or even speak out against religion altogether publicly. This article mentions how Jan Steen’s great religious sentiment speaks through underlying meaning in seven of his paintings. Overall, this article is helpful in discussing the culture of fifteenth to seventeenth century Dutch life. (John Taylor)
Cibelli, Deborah H. “’Girl with a Pearl Earring‘: Painting, Reality, Fiction." The Journal of Popular Culture 37.4 (2004): 583-592. Print
The author stated that, for Chevalier, the realism of Vermeer's style was not completely unmediated. Chevalier accepts the theory that Vermeer produced his paintings using the camera obscura. In the aspect of portraying the scene, she referred to Vermeer's use of the camera obscura to underscore the accuracy of the figures in his paintings. The author quoted theorem by other proficient he agreed with that Vermeer imitated halation effects by using pointellés, or dots of impasto, as an abstract element to define solid nonmetallic objects, and not just for highlights. For the most part, Chevalier agreed with the thesis and stylistic assessment, but she missed some points of the technique. The author pointed out an interesting fact that Chevalier provided evidence for Vermeer’s use of the camera obscura by proof his accessibility to lens. Van Leeuwebhoek, who also triggered other important plots was the interesting figure Chevalier used.
The author also stated that in assessing the naturalistic outer forms, the viewer is to analyze the figures in Vermeer's paintings for signs of their interior thoughts so that their emotions or passions can be contrasted with ideals of the time period. The camera obscura is paradigmatic of her technique of describing the social context and the personality and moral dimension of the characters, which is supported by an example of the milk maid in the book, which put emphasis on the human figure. The author of the article disagreed with that. Despite Chevalier's keen description of the tableau, certain details and furnishings were not mentioned. There is no reference to the Cupid figures depicted in the tiles along the lower section of the wall, or the foot-warmer to the lower right of the figure, which all represented main figure’s traits.
Another painting method, false color, was also mentioned by the author. Chevalier had Griet discuss Vermeer's method for rendering form. Those puzzling color contributed to the picture in the end. Thus, Chevalier argued that the “false colors” were deliberately chosen to further the artist's aims. The author seemed to agree with that, but no further discussion about the novel was given on this topic. [Minshuo Li]
Jackery, Hughes. "Vermeer's Palette." The National Gallery, London: Western European Painting 1250–1900. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 July 2013
Without a doubt, colors used in a painting can determine the faith of an artifact. “The range and depth of colours in Vermeer’s paintings were achieved by using a few core pigments. Discover which colours Vermeer used and how he combined these in surprising new ways.” From the beginning, the article starts off by describing Vermeer’s expertise in coloristic effects. Bright colors glimmering in every painting certainly captured the eyes of any audience. Author then, mentions shocking truth about Johannes Vermeer. No different from the most of 17th Century painters, Vermeer had surprisingly limited palette of colors. However, Vermeer searched for wide range of sources for pigments, which ultimately filled his palette with beautiful set of newborn colors. Author lists some of the unique ones that Vermeer used often in his paintings starting with lapis lazuli, which is also known as ultramarine. As he describes, lapis lazuli was extremely expensive colors during the era. Therefore, painters used a sparing amount whereas Vermeer utilized vast amount of this pigment by mixing it into a range of new colors. Author points out the frequent appearance of ultramarine in many of Vermeer’s painting, but in different forms. Because he used lapis lazuli to mix it with other colors, he successfully created wide range of bluish green, bluish yellow and bluish grey colors. Subtle but clearly noticeable difference can be found in Vermeer’s palette of blue pigments. Author then continues on by describing other colors that Vermeer skillfully used such as green-earth, lead-tin yellow, yellow lake, vermilion, red lake and lead white. Throughout the color description, author informs the reader of the functionality of each pigment. From a shadow lying under a woman’s face to an iris of eye, Vermeer’s ability to capture even smallest details and use realistic colors had a synergy effect that no other artists during the era can mimic as the author states to the readers in very convincing tone. By then, the overall message from the article becomes really clear to any audience: Vermeer’s paintings would not be full of details and realism without his ingenious mind to venture into creation of new colors.
[Jung Hun Kim]
Janson, Jonathan. "Essential Vermeer." Essential Vermeer. N.p., 15 Oct. 2001. Web. 22 July 2013.
The main intention of this source is to thoroughly describe the setting in which Vermeer lived and created his artwork. Maps and cultural references are used to paint the picture of what it was like to live and be an artist in the 17th century Dutch culture. The aspect of religion is touched on as the city of Delft was widely divided between Protestants and Catholics. Janson speaks of how Vermeer was a Catholic living in a primarily Protestant culture and yet how his artwork could still strive.
“Essential Vermeer” was a critical source used for laying out the cultural context for further analysis of “Girl with a Pearl Earring”. Janson wants the reader to understand the distinct geographical and cultural aspects of Delft that contributed to Vermeer’s artwork.
Using the internet medium, Janson created this resource in 2001. “Essential Vermeer” is the primary resource for anything to do with Vermeer and is the most comprehensive website dedicated to a single artist. Hundreds of web pages, thousands of images, and numerous interviews with famous art historians. Janson is considered the most knowledgeable and well-known Vermeer historian. In fact, many 17th century historians seek Janson’s expansive knowledge of 17th century Dutch culture. (Devin Roach)
Jongh, E. “Pearls of Virtue and Pearls of Vice.” Stichting voor Nederlandse Kunsthistorische Publicaties. 69-97. 21 Web. July 2013.
The author of “Pearls of Virtue and Pearls of Vice” researches the symbolic meaning of pearls in Dutch painting (Vermeer’s Allegory of Faith) and in 17th century literature.
The writer also looks into the theory of iconological interpretation which is applicable to many different kinds of paintings. In I9I4 Adriaan Barnouw, a professor of Dutch studies, published an article presenting that the theme of Vermeer’s allegorical composition was faith, unambiguously the Catholic faith, which also happened to be that belonging to the artist. Vermeer’s allegorical painting depicts many symbolic objects, but among them explicitly includes a piece of gold gilt leather, an ebony crucifix on a table, a glass sphere hanging by a blue ribbon from the ceiling and finally a pearl necklace worn by a woman. The author writes that as a whole, the painting and everything in it represents the Christianity. For many years before, iconographers had drawn a connection between gold and faith, and the cross found on the table is an unmistakable longstanding aspect of the Christian faith. In many paintings during the 17th century, the sphere represented the artist of the painting in his studio. In addition, in two Vanitas still lifes, the sphere serves as a reminder of death, as the painter and his work will also be overcome by death in the end. As for the sphere in Vemeer’s work, it seems to reference an emblem book by the Jesuit Willem Hesius in 1636 called “Emblemata sacra de fide, spe, charita”, where a boy is depicted sitting beside a cross and lifting a sphere in which the cross and the sun are reflected. A little sphere can reflect the entire universe, as the human mind, despite its limitation, is able to contain the limitlessness of belief in God. There was nothing uncommon in the I7th-century about using reflecting or non-reflecting spheres to symbolize heaven as well. As for the pearls, there are numerous instances of pearls and faith being related to each other in the early Christian era, as it was already being used as a symbol of Christ or of his incarnation. The pearl is frequently compared to Christ, his teachings, or the kingdom of heaven. (Katherine Pham)
Massey, Lyle. “Reflections On Temporality In NetherLandish Art.” Art History 35.5 (2012): 1050-1057. Historial Abstracts. 24 July 2013.
Lyle Massey compared the difference between 17th century Dutch visual art and the Italian visual arts. Italian artists construct very technical paintings. Also Italian artists paint a lasting image. Dutch art on the other hand concentrate more on the visual rather than the spatial, and temporality rather than space. Dutch paintings focus on visual cues such as light and shadows, and how vision is an effect of the constant interaction among our eyes, natural light, and objects. With camera obscura Dutch painter tries to capture real time image that engages the perception, which resulted in a more modern looking than that of the Italian counterpart. Dutch art can be associated with the dullness of material things, but we find that Dutch artist can make these dullness things beautiful. For this reason Dutch painting often lacks deeper meaning and becomes boring at first glance. The Author point out that boredom is the key to understanding Dutch art.
The author also went into detail about Dutch’s still life paintings, specifically the skull. Skulls in Dutch visual culture are often a common visual representation of death. Instead the author suggested that the meaning of the skull is always changing. The skull and the skeleton were used as a bridge between the living and the dead. The still life brings to attention the meaning of the relativity of time. By comparing human time to geological time, human time becomes irreverent when comparing to the rock cycles and the decomposition of bones. This article is very informative on the visual art of the Dutch golden age compared to the Italian visual arts. The article goes into detail about the Dutch visual arts especially still lives, references art historians and many experts in the field. Massey's article is a very useful source of Dutch 17th century visual culture. [Sataporn Worasilpchai]
Montias, John Michael. "The Guild of St. Luke in 17th-Century Delft and the Economic Status of Artists and Artisans." Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art 9.2 (1977): 93–105. Print. 17 July 2013.
The essay opens with the proposal for creation of the Guild of St. Luke in the town of Leiden in 1609. Unfortunately for the artists, the town officials denied their request to start a guild. The trade with foreign cities threatened the interests of Dutch painters. The Delft authorities issued statutes for the Guild of St. Luke to further stifle foreign works of art to be traded in Delft. Records of the members in the guild were reviewed by profession, adding up to 92 in 1613 compared to 39 in 1588. These individuals made up a little less than one percent of the 22,760 population of Delft. The essay raises four questions to go into further detail: Does the master list account for all guild members from 1613 to 1714, which artists were in the guild, for did the economic status compare between member and non-member, and the economic status within the guild between trades. Since the guild controlled the selling of works of art, most art dealers were a part of the guild. All painters, sculptors, glass makers, etc. had to be a part of the guild if they wanted to open up shop and sell any of their own works. Unregistered painters were usually sons of guild members therefore just painted and worked for them. For an apprentice to become a member of the guild, an admittance fee must be paid along with a masterpiece submitted for approval. Some trades such as potters had many more unregistered artisans than other trades due to the complex operation and more employed workers. The average price of a house of a guild member was significantly than the property value of any non guild member. The Delft Guild of St. Luke was one of few examples where the guild lasted for generations keeping its importance because of its large, distinguished membership and authority over artistic commerce.
[Kyle Quick]
Morel, Pauline. ""Look at me": The Camera Obscura and the Apprenticeship of the Gaze in Tracy Chevalier's Girl with a Pearl Earring." Mosaic: a journal for the interdisciplinary study of literature 44.2 (2011): 67-83. Web. 22 Jul. 2013.
Pauline Morel, the author of Mosaic, suggests that the importance of the camera obscura is to minimize the weak points of seeing subjectively. She supports this suggestion with detailed explanations and quotations from the book Girl with a Pearl Earring. Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the most famous Dutch scientist in the area of optics and was famous for his microscopic studies in the Golden Dutch Age. It has been suggested that he is the man portrayed in two of Vermeer’s paintings, The Astronomer and The Geographer. Based on this assumption, Chevalier portrayed him as Vermeer’s friend and patron. Leeuwenhoek also gave Vermeer the camera obscura in the book Girl with a Pearl Earring. The function of the camera obscura, with a camera lens and screen, can be compared to the eye and the subjective experience of seeing. Morel quoted Alper's argument that "the camera obscura is the 'equivalent of the eye' (30). Here, however, it enhances and technologizes the eye" (Morel 71). According to Morel’s argument, by seeing through eyes, the image we visually comprehend is biased by our thoughts as we veil “unwanted” objects and focus only on certain objects we want to perceive. Contrary to seeing with the naked eye, when seeing through the camera obscura, "the image is distanced, stilled, defamiliarized, captured" (Morel 73). The camera obscura, a “black box” in the book Girl with a Pearl Earring, becomes an important topic that leads to the first interaction of Vermeer and Griet in Vermeer’s studio. "Vermeer's "black box" enables the user to discover things that are obscured, kept secret, hidden from ordinary sight" (Morel 72).
[Eunsun Choi]
Parker, Charles H. Faith on the Margins: Catholics and Catholicism in the Dutch Golden Age. Harvard University Press, 2008.
The focus of this book is to study the collaboration between the laity and the secular clergy in the missionary organization known as the Holland Mission. This book also gives an academically researched context to the catholicism during the Dutch Golden Age. The Dutch Republic during this time outlawed Catholic worship and secularized all church property. The author's research time line overlaps with when Vermeer was alive and active. The range also covers before and slightly after the Dutch Golden Age as well giving the audience more contexts within itself. In the post-Reformation period, the Dutch citizens could choose among many various Christian denominations including Catholic and Calvinist. They could even choose not to be related to any of them if they so choose. However, it wasn't free-for-all to all religion. There were still outlawed denominations which could lead to devastating consequences. Though switching denomination was allowed, citizens still had to be careful where they tread. However, Dutch still had the most freedom with their religious choices within Europe. What we see often see here is the Protestants, Calvinists and Mennonites, railed against the religious liberty despite the "image" of the Dutch Golden Age of having a high tolerance against different religious beliefs. Mainly the toleration implied a condition of religious coexistence by the state to manage the public. In best case scenario, Catholic worships were held in private homes. Catholics forfeited eligibility to hold any public offices and lost all rights to display their religious allegiance in any public forum. Remaining faithful to Catholicism came at a high price. The Catholic communities developed a collective self-awareness which made them identify with the earlier sufferings of Christians. [Ky Lee]
Snow, Edward. A Study of Vermeer. Google Books. University of California Press, 1994. Web. 20 July 2013.
Edward Snow discusses the painting the “Girl with a Pearl Earring” in the first chapter of his book called “Head of a Young Girl”. He mentions her piercing yet compassionate eyes- how they sharpen the mood when one views the painting. He discusses the secret understanding, complicity and unrevealed story behind Vermeer’s art. Vermeer’s art is very real because the background and all the people make one feel as if he or she were present and part of the image. Vermeer always leaves one wondering who, what, where, and why and the unknown is what made him great. His paintings include a depicted moment in time and the use of camera obscura projects the image from the outside screen to the inside. Vermeer’s painting all have a magnificent attention to specific details. The author mentions how Vermeer’s style influenced the invention of modern cameras. Snow constantly refers back to different images of Vermeer’s and does not only refer to the specific painting process and technique, but also the gender politics and sexuality behind all the paintings he analyzes. He offers insight and understanding on how to inspire people to examine and interpret Vermeer’s art compared to modern artwork and other sixteenth century paintings. The book is mainly designed to facilitate the overall painting process as there are over eighty different illustrations that are analyzed and explained.
[Neuman, Addie]
Snow, Edward A., and Johannes Vermeer. A Study of Vermeer. Rev. and enl. ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994: 91-92. Print.
In Chevalier’s Girl with a Pearl Earring, one of the paintings that Griet describes to her parents one Sunday while at home depicts van Ruijven sitting with his back to the audience playing a lute, one woman with her hands on a harpischord, and another woman on van Ruijven’s other side. In reality, Chevalier is actually describing an authentic painting attributed to Johannes Vermeer known as The Concert. It is only this painting, plus two others (Couple standing at a Virginal and Artist in His Studio) chart early artistic concerns Vermeer had that were included in his later work through his depictions of interactions between the two sexes. Snow refers to Vermeer’s subject in this painting more directly as “women in the light of men’s attention” (91). The Concert is an interesting painting to art historians for its change of pace from earlier works; the subjects are moved to the back of the room, creating a mood of intimacy that Vermeer’s previous works lacked due to the nearness of his previous subjects in the foreground of those paintings, “situated in a space that seems more transcendental than spectatorial” (91). Though Snow observes more balance than tension in this piece, there still, quite clearly, exists “erotic motives” both sanctioned and suppressed by the painting. It is this subtle marriage of art and sexuality that Snow wishes to bring to the observer’s view in Vermeer’s work. Perhaps this is why van Ruijven’s character in Chevalier’s novel holds such overt sexual overtones; to compare and contrast with the dynamics in Vermeer’s actual paintings. Still, The Concert remains visually clear that it’s true focus is on the women in the painting despite the tension, balance, and interaction noted earlier, the man “is still a visitor in an interior realm that obviously favors female presence” (92). It is also worth noting that Chevalier could have decided to include this painting in her book since it represented such a transitional time for Vermeer’s paintings in real life according to Snow. [Lauren Morgan]
Steadman, Philip. Vermeer’s Camera: Uncovering the Truth Behind the Masterpieces. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Print.
While the fact that Vermeer has occasionally used certain optical devices to assist his drawing creation is widely accepted among art historians, the author of this book studied camera obscura mechanism, Vermeer’s painting techniques, and the 17th-century Dutch cultural context to determine to what degree Vermeer relied on the optical aid. The author revealed the novel and prestigious role of optical device in 17th century Netherland and also covered Vermeer’s relationship with his scientist friends who introduced camera obscura to him, evidence of usage from the reconstruction of spaces in Vermeer’s paintings, arguments against Vermeer’s use of the camera, and how camera has influenced on Vermeer’s painting style. The painting Girl with a Pearl Earring was also discussed in his book by citing a recent study of the painting using X-ray photography. The chapter analyzed X-ray result to determine Vermeer’s painting process, layer by layer. Other studies on Vermeer’s paintings using contemporary technologies are also discussed in this book.
This source is very useful in obtaining knowledge of the camera obscura itself as well as attributes of Vermeer’s painting style that reflected the influence of camera obscura. It does not limit the discussion to argue whether Vermeer has used the device but also to explore Vermeer’s obsessions with light, shadow and color as a reflection of his unique perspective which may from his prolonged observations of patterns of light falling on the camera obscura screen.
[Chenlu Han]
Timmers, J. J. M. A History of Dutch Life and Art. [London]: Nelson, 1959. Print.
As referenced by the glossary term, Roemer glass, the Dutch gained their inspiration for glass from their Roman predecessors. However, the Dutch perfected one look and perfected the look of the Roemer while the Romans had a multitude created a large range of containers. Examples of the wide variety are the glass containers, terra sigillata, and terra nigra. All of these vary in shape, colour, and material. Although, none of them hold the uniqueness of the Roemer, that is, none of the containers have a stem. Instead of stems, the Romans made handles for the containers to be easily held. In addition, the containers are consistant in the materials. The terra sigillata is made of strictly red clay, terra nigra is made of all darkened or black clay, and the glass was made of only the same type of sand. The Roemers were different because a fair number of them had green glass stems, but had a clear glass cup, which is caused by using two different types of sand. Only by looking back at the past, can the current viewers see how the Dutch gained their style from their ancestors. The Dutch used the Roman’s work as stepping stones, in other words, they learned glass turning and making relief patterns all in such a way that a large number of people could have access to such great tools so that their lives could be made easier.
[Matthew Segars]
Vries, A. B. De. Jan Vermeer Van Delft. London: B.T. Batsford, 1948. Print.
The book is comprised of seven chapters, which in my opinion is basically about two main ideas: who Vermeer was and what paintings he drew. The book relies heavily on legal documents found about Vermeer to piece together the story of his life. In the first half of the book, there are indications of Vermeer's economic struggle. Johannes Reyniersz Vermeer and Catharina Bolenes entered in the list of persons married in Delft between 1650 and 1656. Shortly after, he joined the Guild of St. Luke, which required him to pay an entrance fee. With the burden of both the marriage and the guild, it took Vermeer three years to pay off his entrance fee. Financial difficulties, like Vermeer's colleagues, obsessed him greatly, as many records suggest. He was either in possession of little capital or was deep in debt throughout his artistic career. In 1657, Vermeer borrowed 200 guilders. He received some legacy from his sister, Geertruyt. Before his death, Vermeer borrowed 1000 guilders. Upon death, the baker, Hendrick van Buyten, settled a debt of 617 guilders that Vermeer owed him with two pictures as payment. Vermeer's widow placed great value on the paintings and initially reserved the rights to keep the paintings. Ultimately, the immense debt was unmanageable and Catharina Vermeer-Bolnes had to refuse the inheritance. However, it should also be noted that he received handsome payments for his piece of artwork. Gerrit Dou was a world-famous artist at the time and he received about 300 guilders for a single figure painting, comparable to Vermeer's. Before 1700, a greater number of Vermeer's paintings could be found in individual collections. In 1696, an auction was held in Amsterdam where twenty-one of his paintings were sold and distributed.
[Alex Rhim]
Waiboer, Adriaan E. "Vermeer's Impact On His Contemporaries." Oud-Holland 123.1 (2010): 51-64. Art & Architecture Complete. Web. 24 July 2013.
The article examines the influence of Johannes Vermeer, who worked in Delft, the Netherlands, on other Dutch painters. Though others suggest that his impact was small compared to the influence of other genre painters such as Gerard ter Borch, who were much more prolific, this article suggests that Vermeer did had a greater impact than he is recognized for. Continually, these artists peaked several years before Vermeer.
Instead of serving as an inspiration, Vermeer and his work operated as a starting point for his colleagues. The author speculates about which artists were first influenced by Vermeer, including Pieter de Hooch, Jan Steen, and Jan Van Mieris. The first visible signs of Vermeer’s impact include his painting form the early 1660’s A Woman Weighing Coins, which is reminiscent of Vermeer’s Woman Holding a Balance. Other artists discussed include Gabriel Metsu, Cornelius De Man, Jacob Ochtervelt, and Michiel van Musscher. Continually, Steen’s painting Grace before the Meal shows distinct elements of Vermeer’s and De Hooch’s styles from 1658-1660, which include spatial relationship in the interior, the couple in the corner, the back wall, and the daylight. Though the exclusive link to Vermeer the barrel, and the plate with a ham on it.
It is generally assumed that Vermeer painted his representations of single women, depicted at three-quarter length, standing in front of a table—strengthening the verticality of the female figure, in response to Van Mieris’s works, such as A Woman Examining Herself in a Mirror of around 1662. However, if Vermeer’s Woman Holding a Water Jug dates from before 1662, as argued by some, then the influence may have originated from Vermeer.
To conclude, by the observations of elements in other paintings of the same era, the assumption that a few collectors only knew Vermeer’s works is clearly invalid. It is obvious that Vermeer did not have a large following in the youth population, but several important Dutch genre painters after 1660 responded to his work, even if only once. His work was enjoyed for more than a short-lived hype, though it would take 250 more years before his impact became a global marvel.
[Jordan Garth]
Welu, James. "Vermeer's Astronomer: Observations on an Open Book." Art Bulletin. 68.2 (1986): 263-267. Print.
In “Vermeer’s Astronomer: Observations on an Open Book,” Welu begins by introducing Jan Vermeer’s Astronomer and highlighting the key, noteworthy details such as how “Vermeer’s detailed rendering enables the audience to identify not only the book but the specific edition.” The author continues by introducing Vermeer’s Geographer and comparing and contrasting the painting with the Astronomer, pointing out common trends in the decisions Vermeer made in the two paintings. Throughout the article, Welu poses questions to the audience as to why Vermeer made certain decisions in his paintings and proposes potential theories that may explain the purpose behind Vermeer’s decisions. After comparing and contrasting Vermeer’s Astronomer and Geographer, the author identified a link between the two paintings, Vermeer’s Finding of Moses. Welu ends the article by making comments on Vermeer’s common trend of “incorporating paintings into common genre scenes to add deeper meaning” and using the paintings as “proof of Vermeer’s interests in and knowledge of the cosmographical endeavors of his day, the great age of exploration of both heaven and earth.” The goal of the article is to explore and inform the audience about the relationship between Vermeer’s Astronomer and Geographer. The author uses numerous references throughout the article such as the reference to Vermeer’s family documents, establishing ethos by showing that a lot of research went into the making of the article. Welu includes several images in the article to allow the audience to enhance understanding of the descriptions of Vermeer’s Astronomer and Geographer as well as other artifacts described. The article is a useful source in helping the audience to see and understand the deeper meaning behind Vermeer’s Astronomer and Geographer as well as the relation between Vermeer and each of the paintings.
[Jimmy Nguyen]
West, Roger W., and Hank G. Van Veen. "Gaze as Depicted in Vermeer's Girl With a Pearl Earring." The Journal of General Psychology 134.3 (2007): 313-28. Print.
This article discusses the intricate detail that Vermeer put into his painting Girl With a Pearl Earring - particularly regarding the orientation and gaze of her eyes. The gaze of the woman in the painting could be one of the fine yet prominent details which produce such a strong impression on the viewer. As such, in the study, researchers first asked ten observers to estimate the direction of the woman's gaze. Following that, they replaced the painting's eyes with that of a live model in various orientations. This is due to the fact that "when a model gazes at an observer that the model is directly facing, the threshold for horizontal error between true direction of gaze and perceived direction of gaze is extraordinarily small" (West 314). The results of the study suggest that illusions occur such as perceiving the gaze of the model to go past the observer if his or her head is tilted. Also, when viewing each eye of the painting and the model individually, the gazes seem to look outward. The third conclusion was that the gaze of a model with a tilted head, viewing both eyes, tends to follow the gaze of the nearer eye. Bringing this back to Vermeer's painting, the woman exhibits all three of these illusions. However, it is not known to the researchers if these illusions were deliberate or was a result of his attention to detail and accuracy. In conclusion, multiple features come together in Vermeer’s Girl With a Pearl Earring to increase the realism and draw in the viewer. In addition to the gaze of the eye, techniques such as painting the reflection of light on the cornea and creating asymmetry attempt to achieve this purpose.
[Matthew Chan]
Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr. Vermeer & the Art of Painting. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995: 123-124. Print.
Arthur Wheelock’s Vermeer and the Art of painting is a fascinating insight about Vermeer’s artistic techniques and practices. It compares many paintings ascribed to Vermeer and shows us contrasting features in them. It also investigates his techniques to explain how various features in his painting were created. Using these explanations, Wheelock tries to subjectively uncover Vermeer’s artistic mind.
One of the paintings studied in extensive detail in this book is Girl with the Red Hat. In the process, it is compared to Vermeer's other painting, The Girl with a Pearl Earring. Wheelock argues that the pose of a girl looking over her shoulder at the viewer was a common theme in Vermeer’s paintings. Analyzing the background and composition of such paintings, he concludes that the figures and their environment in them are subtly interlocked through perspective, proportion, and color. It is also been observed by Wheelock that Vermeer modified the shape and size of objects in his paintings for compositional purposes. For example, the pearl in The Girl with a Pearl Earring is unusually large in size and the shape of the chair in the Girl with the Red Hat has been modified a bit.
Here, a subjective argument made by the author to complement his explanation is quite insightful. It is about the costume of the woman in these 2 paintings, which is pretty exotic and antique for 17th century Dutch culture. One of the reasons for this, as suggested by Wheelock, is that maybe Vermeer wanted to remove his figure from reference to any specific time or place. Wheelock argues “He may have done so to fuse that sense of spontaneity, so forcefully evident in this work, with something more lasting and universal, an impulse that is fundamental to the character of his larger, more involved compositions.” Perhaps, this is the reason why many of the figures in Vermeer’s tronies are subject to so much wild speculation. Nevertheless, it seems to apply well with the character of Greit as portrayed by Tracy Chevalier in her fictional bestseller Girl with a pearl earring.
[Shivam Patel]
Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr. Vermeer's Painting Technique. Art Journal 41.2 (1981): 162-165. JSTOR. Web. 22 July 2013.
The scientific examination of Vermeer's painting methods and techniques is probably still at its earliest stages. As of yet, no systematic research has been conducted on Vermeer's paintings even though there are only 35 in all. However, various aspects of his technique have been closely examined in Arthur K. Wheelock’s essay on Vermeer’s painting techniques. Wheelock got the chance to intimately study the paintings with a variety of tools such as a microscope, x-radiograph, and infrared and ultraviolet photographs. The author specifically attempted to find a relationship between the evolution of his style and the developments in his painting techniques. He suspected that the use of a camera obscura could have had an impact on Vermeer’s painting style and/or techniques. Although most of the essay is about the author’s findings during his time studying Vermeer’s painting style, he spends the majority of the first page talking about how museum employers do not typically provide enough opportunity for employees to learn more about art. Wheelock asserts that it is important to study the techniques Vermeer used when painting because the authenticity of some of the paintings has been questioned over the years. Using x-radiographs, the author figured out that Vermeer distorted some of the natural characteristics of objects in his paintings in order to accomplish certain compositional effects. For example, he outlined the buildings in his paintings that were touching the sky with with a thin strip of white paint. This accentuated the profile of the city against the sky. One important discovery that Wheelock made using infrared reflectography was that Vermeer blocked in his forms before painting them.
[Gerard Willingham]
The article examines the influence of Johannes Vermeer, who worked in Delft, the Netherlands, on other Dutch painters. Though others suggest that his impact was small compared to the influence of other genre painters such as Gerard ter Borch, who were much more prolific, this article suggests that Vermeer did had a greater impact than he is recognized for. Continually, these artists peaked several years before Vermeer.
Instead of serving as an inspiration, Vermeer and his work operated as a starting point for his colleagues. The author speculates about which artists were first influenced by Vermeer, including Pieter de Hooch, Jan Steen, and Jan Van Mieris. The first visible signs of Vermeer’s impact include his painting form the early 1660’s A Woman Weighing Coins, which is reminiscent of Vermeer’s Woman Holding a Balance. Other artists discussed include Gabriel Metsu, Cornelius De Man, Jacob Ochtervelt, and Michiel van Musscher. Continually, Steen’s painting Grace before the Meal shows distinct elements of Vermeer’s and De Hooch’s styles from 1658-1660, which include spatial relationship in the interior, the couple in the corner, the back wall, and the daylight. Though the exclusive link to Vermeer the barrel, and the plate with a ham on it.
It is generally assumed that Vermeer painted his representations of single women, depicted at three-quarter length, standing in front of a table—strengthening the verticality of the female figure, in response to Van Mieris’s works, such as A Woman Examining Herself in a Mirror of around 1662. However, if Vermeer’s Woman Holding a Water Jug dates from before 1662, as argued by some, then the influence may have originated from Vermeer.
To conclude, by the observations of elements in other paintings of the same era, the assumption that a few collectors only knew Vermeer’s works is clearly invalid. It is obvious that Vermeer did not have a large following in the youth population, but several important Dutch genre painters after 1660 responded to his work, even if only once. His work was enjoyed for more than a short-lived hype, though it would take 250 more years before his impact became a global marvel.
[Jordan Garth]
Welu, James. "Vermeer's Astronomer: Observations on an Open Book." Art Bulletin. 68.2 (1986): 263-267. Print.
In “Vermeer’s Astronomer: Observations on an Open Book,” Welu begins by introducing Jan Vermeer’s Astronomer and highlighting the key, noteworthy details such as how “Vermeer’s detailed rendering enables the audience to identify not only the book but the specific edition.” The author continues by introducing Vermeer’s Geographer and comparing and contrasting the painting with the Astronomer, pointing out common trends in the decisions Vermeer made in the two paintings. Throughout the article, Welu poses questions to the audience as to why Vermeer made certain decisions in his paintings and proposes potential theories that may explain the purpose behind Vermeer’s decisions. After comparing and contrasting Vermeer’s Astronomer and Geographer, the author identified a link between the two paintings, Vermeer’s Finding of Moses. Welu ends the article by making comments on Vermeer’s common trend of “incorporating paintings into common genre scenes to add deeper meaning” and using the paintings as “proof of Vermeer’s interests in and knowledge of the cosmographical endeavors of his day, the great age of exploration of both heaven and earth.” The goal of the article is to explore and inform the audience about the relationship between Vermeer’s Astronomer and Geographer. The author uses numerous references throughout the article such as the reference to Vermeer’s family documents, establishing ethos by showing that a lot of research went into the making of the article. Welu includes several images in the article to allow the audience to enhance understanding of the descriptions of Vermeer’s Astronomer and Geographer as well as other artifacts described. The article is a useful source in helping the audience to see and understand the deeper meaning behind Vermeer’s Astronomer and Geographer as well as the relation between Vermeer and each of the paintings.
[Jimmy Nguyen]
West, Roger W., and Hank G. Van Veen. "Gaze as Depicted in Vermeer's Girl With a Pearl Earring." The Journal of General Psychology 134.3 (2007): 313-28. Print.
This article discusses the intricate detail that Vermeer put into his painting Girl With a Pearl Earring - particularly regarding the orientation and gaze of her eyes. The gaze of the woman in the painting could be one of the fine yet prominent details which produce such a strong impression on the viewer. As such, in the study, researchers first asked ten observers to estimate the direction of the woman's gaze. Following that, they replaced the painting's eyes with that of a live model in various orientations. This is due to the fact that "when a model gazes at an observer that the model is directly facing, the threshold for horizontal error between true direction of gaze and perceived direction of gaze is extraordinarily small" (West 314). The results of the study suggest that illusions occur such as perceiving the gaze of the model to go past the observer if his or her head is tilted. Also, when viewing each eye of the painting and the model individually, the gazes seem to look outward. The third conclusion was that the gaze of a model with a tilted head, viewing both eyes, tends to follow the gaze of the nearer eye. Bringing this back to Vermeer's painting, the woman exhibits all three of these illusions. However, it is not known to the researchers if these illusions were deliberate or was a result of his attention to detail and accuracy. In conclusion, multiple features come together in Vermeer’s Girl With a Pearl Earring to increase the realism and draw in the viewer. In addition to the gaze of the eye, techniques such as painting the reflection of light on the cornea and creating asymmetry attempt to achieve this purpose.
[Matthew Chan]
Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr. Vermeer & the Art of Painting. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995: 123-124. Print.
Arthur Wheelock’s Vermeer and the Art of painting is a fascinating insight about Vermeer’s artistic techniques and practices. It compares many paintings ascribed to Vermeer and shows us contrasting features in them. It also investigates his techniques to explain how various features in his painting were created. Using these explanations, Wheelock tries to subjectively uncover Vermeer’s artistic mind.
One of the paintings studied in extensive detail in this book is Girl with the Red Hat. In the process, it is compared to Vermeer's other painting, The Girl with a Pearl Earring. Wheelock argues that the pose of a girl looking over her shoulder at the viewer was a common theme in Vermeer’s paintings. Analyzing the background and composition of such paintings, he concludes that the figures and their environment in them are subtly interlocked through perspective, proportion, and color. It is also been observed by Wheelock that Vermeer modified the shape and size of objects in his paintings for compositional purposes. For example, the pearl in The Girl with a Pearl Earring is unusually large in size and the shape of the chair in the Girl with the Red Hat has been modified a bit.
Here, a subjective argument made by the author to complement his explanation is quite insightful. It is about the costume of the woman in these 2 paintings, which is pretty exotic and antique for 17th century Dutch culture. One of the reasons for this, as suggested by Wheelock, is that maybe Vermeer wanted to remove his figure from reference to any specific time or place. Wheelock argues “He may have done so to fuse that sense of spontaneity, so forcefully evident in this work, with something more lasting and universal, an impulse that is fundamental to the character of his larger, more involved compositions.” Perhaps, this is the reason why many of the figures in Vermeer’s tronies are subject to so much wild speculation. Nevertheless, it seems to apply well with the character of Greit as portrayed by Tracy Chevalier in her fictional bestseller Girl with a pearl earring.
[Shivam Patel]
Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr. Vermeer's Painting Technique. Art Journal 41.2 (1981): 162-165. JSTOR. Web. 22 July 2013.
The scientific examination of Vermeer's painting methods and techniques is probably still at its earliest stages. As of yet, no systematic research has been conducted on Vermeer's paintings even though there are only 35 in all. However, various aspects of his technique have been closely examined in Arthur K. Wheelock’s essay on Vermeer’s painting techniques. Wheelock got the chance to intimately study the paintings with a variety of tools such as a microscope, x-radiograph, and infrared and ultraviolet photographs. The author specifically attempted to find a relationship between the evolution of his style and the developments in his painting techniques. He suspected that the use of a camera obscura could have had an impact on Vermeer’s painting style and/or techniques. Although most of the essay is about the author’s findings during his time studying Vermeer’s painting style, he spends the majority of the first page talking about how museum employers do not typically provide enough opportunity for employees to learn more about art. Wheelock asserts that it is important to study the techniques Vermeer used when painting because the authenticity of some of the paintings has been questioned over the years. Using x-radiographs, the author figured out that Vermeer distorted some of the natural characteristics of objects in his paintings in order to accomplish certain compositional effects. For example, he outlined the buildings in his paintings that were touching the sky with with a thin strip of white paint. This accentuated the profile of the city against the sky. One important discovery that Wheelock made using infrared reflectography was that Vermeer blocked in his forms before painting them.
[Gerard Willingham]